Question & Answer: Berry Preservation

Question: I have read that berries were a important part of the Native American diet. How were berries preserved by Native people, who had no means of canning or refrigeration?

Answer: There are materials here in the library that suggest that a common method of preserving the berries was to dry them and then ground them into a flour type of consistency. The dried and ground berries were then used in recipes.

"Although we now have many ways of storing foods for use out of season, the Indians usually had to rely on just one method - drying. This is what they did when they found more chokecherries than they cared to eat fresh.

The Jicarilla Apaches ground the berries and made the meal into round cakes approximately 6 inches in diameter and 1 inch thick. These hard, blackish patties could be stored and reconstituted when they were needed by soaking in water. The seeds contain a fair percentage of cyanide, but this poison is volatile and drive off by cooking. The soaked cherry cakes were boiled and the juice strained and sometimes sweetened for use as a beverage, or the juice was combined with other ingredients."
Source--Niethammer, Carolyn. American Indian Cooking: Recipes from the Southwest. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999


"Berries, both fresh and dried, were important in the diet of Northwestern tribes. According to Skokomish chef Bruce Miller, the wild cranberry, about a quarter of the size of those sold commercially, is only one of the many varieties of berries available in the Northwest.

Traditionally, fresh berries were cooked by placing alternating layers of berries and heated stones in a special cedar cooking box or a tightly woven basket. After the stones were removed, the cooked berries - depending on the variety and the desired use - were either left to sit and thicken or were thickened more quickly by an addition of dried powdered berries or powdered skunk cabbage leaves. Thickened berries were formed into cakes and placed on wooden drying racks lined with skunk cabbage leaves. After drying over a hot alder-wood fire, the finished cakes were stacked and tied with soft shredded cedar bark and stored in a warm, dry place for future use."
Source--Cox, Beverly and Martin Jacobs. Spirit of the Harvest: North American Indian Cooking. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang, Inc., 1991.

Email your questions to: reference [at] mptn-nsn.gov

Question and answer: Narrowing your topic

Question: I am a senior history student at ______ University. My last research paper is due this semester and I would like to do it on the Native Americans after Manifest Destiny. I was wondering if you could guide me to some information on this topic. Thank you.

Answer: Thanks for contacting us with your question. The topic you propose is a little too broad, but I can give you some suggestions to narrow it down. If by “manifest destiny” you mean 19th century U.S. expansion, then it seems you want to explore Native American history 20th century and beyond? Some suggestions: narrow it to a specific tribe or geographic area (such as Pacific Northwest, Great Plains, etc.). You could also, or in addition, focus on specific sub-topics such as

-Indian urbanization
-Indian activism and resistance movements
-Sovereignty
-Land tenure
-Native American’s involvement in the US military
-U.S. government’s American Indian policy

Try exploring our collection through the online catalog: http://www.mpmrc.com/
Do some keyword searching there and see what you come up with. Our collection has over 50,000 titles on Native American history and culture, so it is a good representation of what has been published. We do not lend or participate in interlibrary loan, but you should be able to get most of what we have through your university’s library system.

Feel free to ask if you need further assistance.

Sincerely,


Joseph Frawley
Reference / Info Tech Librarian
Mashantucket Pequot Museum & Research Center

Question & Answer: Wampum

An occasional feature, where we post some of the interesting email questions we receive.

Question: I am trying to find out how to make wampum. I have collected the necessary shells and would now like to find a book, article, or some other source to guide me through the process. Any information would be greatly appreciated.

Answer: Thanks for contacting us. First I recommend looking at our Wampum Bibliography . The material listed there will give you some background on the history and cultural uses of wampum.

The best source we have on wampum beadmaking is found in:

Orchard, William C. Beads and Beadwork of the American Indians. Museum of the American Indian Heye Foundation. New York. 1975.

This text is also available online as part of the Universal Library Project hosted at Internet Archive: http://www.archive.org/details/beadsandbeadwork002194mbp

See the chapter on titled Wampum which includes not only a discussion of the tools used and illustrations of the bead making process, but also valuable historical and cultural information.

As far as the process for belt weaving, a great description of the process can be found on pp.51-55 of:

Morgan, Lewis Henry and Herbert Marshall Lloyd. League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee Or Iroquois. Dodd, Mead and Company, 1901.

Available online from Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=hh0TAAAAYAAJ

The most common width was 3 fingers or the width of 7 beads, the length ranging from 2 to 6 feet. In belt-making, which is a simple process, eight strands or cords of bark thread are first twisted from filaments of slippery elm, of the requisite length and size; after which they are passed through a strip of deerskin to separate them at equal distances from each other in parallel lines. A splint is then sprung in the form of a bow, to which each end of the several strings is secured, and by which all of them are held in tension, like warp threads in a weaving machine. Seven beads, these making the intended width of the belts, are then run upon a thread by means of a needle, and are passed under the cords at right angles, so as to bring one bead lengthwise between each cord and the one next in position. The thread is then passed back along the upper side of the cords, and again through each of the beads; so that each bead is held firmly in its place by means of the two threads, one passing under and one over the cords. This process is continued until the belt reaches its intended length, when the ends of the cords are tied, the end of the belt covered and afterwards trimmed with ribbons. In ancient times both the cords and the threads were of sinew.

Email your questions to: reference [at] mptn-nsn.gov

Question & Answer: Iroquois Tattoos

As an occasional feature, we will post some of the interesting email questions we receive.

Question: I am currently writing a novel that focuses on the role the Iroquois played in the American Revolution. Consequently, I want to include as many accurate details as possible about the Iroquois of that time. One of these concerns Iroquois tattoos. What designs would have been common and were there more likely areas of the body to be tattooed? Any help you could give me with these questions would be greatly appreciated.

Answer: Thanks for contacting us. This passage, mentioning an Iroquois warrior’s thigh tattoos, is famously quoted in the article Sinclair, A.T. “Tattooing of the North American Indians“ (American Anthropologist 1909/11, No. 3, p. 362-400):

“Near this place we surprised the Captain General of the Iroquois, surnamed Nero by our Frenchmen who have been in their country, because of his notorious cruelty. This in time past has led him to sacrifice to the shade of a brother of his, slain in war, eighty men, burning them all at a slow fire, and to kill sixty more with his own hand. He keeps the tally of these on his thigh, which consequently appears to be covered with black characters.” --Source: The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, Vol. XLVIII. Lower Canada, Ottawas: 1662 — 1664.

You should also take a look at the famous "Four Indian Kings" portraits painted by John Verelst in 1710 which show historically accurate Iroquois facial and body tattoos. (A set of prints are part of the MPMRC's archival collection, though images of them can also be found online- here's one resource.) The four "Kings” were sachems representing the Five Nations Confederacy of the Iroquois (Seneca, Cayuga, Oneida, Onondaga, and Mohawk) who visited Queen Anne's court to ask for military assistance against the French.

For an historical and cultural analysis of the paintings, see the following two articles from MPMRC's CrossPaths magazine.

Campisi, Jack. “More Than Meets the Eye: John Simon’s Engravings of the Four Kings.” Cross Paths Fall 2002:4,10-11.

Cook, Stephen. “The Art and Material Culture of the Four Indian Kings Paintings.” Cross Paths Fall 2002: 5, 12.

I hope this information is of some help and good luck with your novel.

Email your questions to: reference [at] mptn-nsn.gov